Prostate Cancer PSA and other diagnostic modalities for the early diagnosis
Abstract
The incidence of prostate cancer (PCa) in India is shown to have increased with increasing life-expectancy, use of diagnostic marker like prostate specific antigen (PSA) and
changing life style. Prostate cancer occurs at an old age with peak incidence occurring after 65 years of age. Since PCa is often asymptomatic, screening for prostate cancer is
essential for an early diagnosis in men above 55 years of age. PSA is the most widely used biomarker for the early diagnosis of PCa. However, the use of PSA as a screening
tool for the early diagnosis of PCa has been controversial. The use of PSA combined with Digital Rectal Examination (DRE) improves the possibility of diagnosis of PCa. Imaging
techniques are much more used for staging of PCa and for guiding of needle biopsy. The present review describes various diagnostic modalitieswith its merits and demerits,
whether used for the early diagnosis of PCa in an individual patient by urologist or used for population screening purposes.
References
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27. Jager GJ, Ruijter ET, van de Kaa CA, et al. Dynamic TurboFLASH subtraction technique for contrast-enhanced MR imaging of the prostate: correlation with histopathologic results. Radiology. 1997;203:645–652.
28. Schnall MD, Pollack HM. Magnetic resonance imaging of the prostate gland. UrolRadiol. 1990;12:109–114. 29.Sato C, Naganawa S, Nakamura T, et al. Differentiation of noncancerous tissue and cancer lesions by apparent diffusion coefficient values in transition and peripheral zones of the prostate. J MagnReson Imaging. 2005;21:258–262.
30. Phelps ME. Inaugural article: positron emission tomography provides molecular imaging of biological processes. ProcNatlAcad Sci.(USA) 2000;97:9226–9233.
31. Delbeke D. Oncological applications of FDG PET imaging: brain tumors, colorectal cancer, lymphoma and melanoma. J Nucl Med.1999;40:591–603.
32. Effert PJ, Bares R, Handt S, Wolff JM, Bull U, Jakse G. Metabolic imagingof untreated prostate cancer by positron emission tomography with18fluorine-labeled deoxyglucose. J Urol. 1996;155:994–998.
33. Hofer C, Laubenbacher C, Block T, Breul J, Hartung R, Schwaiger M. Fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography is useless for the detection of local recurrence after radical prostatectomy. EurUrol.1999;36:31–35.
34. Liu IJ, Zafar MB, Lai YH, Segall GM, Terris MK. Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography studies in diagnosis and staging of clinically organconfined prostate cancer. Urology. 2001;57:108–111.
35. Morris MJ, Akhurst T, Osman I, et al. Fluorinated deoxyglucose positron emission tomography imaging in progressive metastatic prostate cancer. Urology. 2002;59:913–918.
2. LalithaK, Suman G, Pruthvish S, Mathew A, Murthy NS.Estimation of Time Trends of Incidence of Prostate Cancer – an Indian Scenario Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2012; 13:6245-6250
3. Van den Broeck T, Tosco L, Prekovic S JoniauCent S. Obesity and prostate cancer research. Eur J Urol. 2013; 66: 428-429.
4. Di Francesco Simona and Tenagli RL.Obesity, diabetes and aggressive prostate cancer hormone–naïve at initial diagnosis.Cent Eur J Urol. 2013; 66: 423–427.
5. Ozbek E, Otunctemur A, Dursun M, Sahin S, Besiroglu H, et al. The Metabolic Syndrome is Associated with More Aggressive Prostate Cancer.Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2014; 15:4029-32.
6. Rundle A, Jankowski M, Kryvenko ON, Tang D, Rybicki BA.Obesity and future prostate cancer risk among men after an initial benign biopsy of the prostate. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2013; 22: 898- 904.
7. Kundra V, Silverman PM, Matin SF, Choi H. Imaging in oncology from the University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center: diagnosis, staging, and surveillance of prostate cancer. AJR. 2007; 189:830–844
8. Palmerola R, Smith P, Elliot V, Reese CT, Mahon FB, Harpster LE, et al. The digital rectal examination (DRE) remains important - outcomes from a contemporary cohort of men undergoing an initial 12-18 core prostate needle biopsy. Can J Urol. 2012;19:6542-7.
9. Kash DP, Lal M, Hashmi AH, Mubarak M. Utility of digital rectal examination, serum prostate specific antigen, and transrectal ultrasound in thedetection of prostate cancer: a developing countryperspective. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2014;15:3087-91.
10. Thompson IM. “PSA: a biomarker for disease. A biomarker for clinical trials.Howuseful is it?” Journal of Nutrition. 2006; 136: 2704.
11. Lin K, Lipsitz R, Miller T, Janakiraman S.U.S. Preventive Services Task ForceBenefits and harms of prostate-specific antigen screening for prostate cancer: an evidence update for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2008;149:192-9.
12. CarterH.B, Albertsen PC, Barry MJ, Etzioni R,Freedland SJ. Early Detection of Prostate Cancer: AUA Guideline. The Journal of Urology 2013; 190: 419–426.
13. Heidenreicha A, Abrahamssonb PA, Artibani W, Catto J, Montors F et al.Early Detection of Prostate Cancer: European Association of Urology Recommendation European Urology. 2013; 64 347–354
14. Ganpule AP, Desai MR, T. Manohar, Bapat S. Agespecific prostate specific antigen and prostate specific antigen density values in a community-based Indian population. Indian J Urol. 2007; 23: 122–125.
15. T. Malati and G. Rajani Kumari. Racial and ethnic variation of PSA in global population: Age specific reference intervals for serum prostate specific antigen in healthy South Indian males Indian J ClinBiochem. Jan 2004; 19(1): 132–137.
16. Nieder C,Norum J, Geinitz H. Impact of Common Medications on Serum Total Prostate-specific Antigen Levels and Risk Group Assignment in Patients with Prostate Cancer Anticancer Research. 2011; 31: 51735- 1739
17. D. Anitha and T. Venkatesh. The changing scenario in diagnosing prostate cancer. Indian J ClinBiochem. Jul 2000; 15(2): 114–118.
18. BjurlinMA, Loeb St, PSA Velocity in Risk Stratification of Prostate Cancer Rev Urol. 2013; 15: 204–206.
19. Lee R, Localio AR, Armstrong K, Malkowicz SB, Schwartz JS. A meta-analysis of the performance characteristics of the free prostate-specific antigen test. Urology.2006 67:762-8.
20. Stephan C, Stroebel G, Heinau M, Lenz A, Roemer A, Lein M, et al. The ratio of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) to prostate volume (PSA density) as a parameter to improve the detection of prostate carcinoma in PSA values in the range of < 4 ng/mL.Cancer. 2005;104:993-1003.
21. Roehl KA, Antenor JA, Catalona WJ. Serial biopsy results in prostate cancer screening study. J Urol. 2002;167:2435–2439.
22. Zelefsky MJ, Yamada Y, Cohen G, et Postimplantation dosimetric analysis of permanent transperineal prostate implantation:improved dose distributions with an intraoperative computer-optimized conformal planning technique. Int J RadiatOncolBiol Phys. 2000;48:601–608.
23. Chaussy C, Thuroff S. Results and side effects of high- intensity focused ultrasound in localized prostate cancer. J Endourol.2001;15:437–448.
24. De La Taille A, Benson MC, Bagiella E, et al. Cryoablation for clinically localized prostate cancer using an argon-based systemcomplication rates and biochemical recurrence. BJU Int. 2000;85:281–286.
25. O’Dowd GJ, Veltri RW, Orozco R, Miller MC, Oesterling JE. Update on the appropriate staging evaluation for newly diagnosed prostate cancer. J Urol. 1997;158:687–698.
26. Wolf JS Jr, Cher M, Dall’era M, Presti JC Jr, Hricak H, Carroll PR.The use and accuracy of cross-sectional imaging and fine needle aspiration cytology for detection of pelvic lymph node metastases before radical prostatectomy. J Urol. 1995;153:993–999.
27. Jager GJ, Ruijter ET, van de Kaa CA, et al. Dynamic TurboFLASH subtraction technique for contrast-enhanced MR imaging of the prostate: correlation with histopathologic results. Radiology. 1997;203:645–652.
28. Schnall MD, Pollack HM. Magnetic resonance imaging of the prostate gland. UrolRadiol. 1990;12:109–114. 29.Sato C, Naganawa S, Nakamura T, et al. Differentiation of noncancerous tissue and cancer lesions by apparent diffusion coefficient values in transition and peripheral zones of the prostate. J MagnReson Imaging. 2005;21:258–262.
30. Phelps ME. Inaugural article: positron emission tomography provides molecular imaging of biological processes. ProcNatlAcad Sci.(USA) 2000;97:9226–9233.
31. Delbeke D. Oncological applications of FDG PET imaging: brain tumors, colorectal cancer, lymphoma and melanoma. J Nucl Med.1999;40:591–603.
32. Effert PJ, Bares R, Handt S, Wolff JM, Bull U, Jakse G. Metabolic imagingof untreated prostate cancer by positron emission tomography with18fluorine-labeled deoxyglucose. J Urol. 1996;155:994–998.
33. Hofer C, Laubenbacher C, Block T, Breul J, Hartung R, Schwaiger M. Fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography is useless for the detection of local recurrence after radical prostatectomy. EurUrol.1999;36:31–35.
34. Liu IJ, Zafar MB, Lai YH, Segall GM, Terris MK. Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography studies in diagnosis and staging of clinically organconfined prostate cancer. Urology. 2001;57:108–111.
35. Morris MJ, Akhurst T, Osman I, et al. Fluorinated deoxyglucose positron emission tomography imaging in progressive metastatic prostate cancer. Urology. 2002;59:913–918.
Published
2019-09-12
How to Cite
Dr. Hemant Pathak, Gupta M, Kumar D, Lakhe V, Rahangdale P, Fulari N. (2019). Prostate Cancer PSA and other diagnostic modalities for the early diagnosis. The Indian Practitioner, 67(7), 436-440. Retrieved from https://articles.theindianpractitioner.com/index.php/tip/article/view/786
Section
Review article
